Our knowledge society challenges learners to move beyond individual learning towards active participation in collaborative knowledge work and towards developing shared knowledge practices. Consequently, pedagogical approaches in higher education need to cope with these challenges to involve authentic settings that emphasize and enhance the development of such collaborative practices.

This symposium presents empirical work that explores knowledge-driven collaborative learning in higher education. The four studies presented were conducted in various higher education contexts and are part of the EC-funded Knowledge Practices Laboratory project (www.kp-lab.org). The common theoretical framework employed within this project is that of the knowledge creation approach to learning (Paavola & Hakkarainen, 2005), which views learning as involving the collaborative creation of new knowledge through development of shared objects. The four studies in this symposium investigate different conceptual and relational aspects of object-oriented collaborative practices that appear to be decisive for learning in knowledge creation settings.

The first study examines shared epistemic agency in collaborative object-oriented learning and aims to provide more insight in the relational aspects of joint productive knowledge work. The second and third papers look at learning in engineering design courses where products are developed for end-users from the “real world” outside the immediate education setting. The second study examines cross-fertilization of knowledge practices in partnerships between educational institutions and working contexts, and the related challenges that emerge. In the third study relevant steps in a collaborative design process and the role of shared objects are highlighted; the outcomes of this analysis serve as input for creating a tailored pedagogical design that fosters knowledge-driven learning practices. The fourth study attempts to provide an explanation for the failure of collaboration between students and their teacher in a knowledge creation context. The analysis provides insights contributing to successful planning of collaborative learning and teaching.

This study starts from the premise that learning is a process that involves creating new knowledge through collaborative work on shared knowledge objects (Paavola & Hakkarainen, 2005). In this context, agentic conduct is essential for productive collaborative object development. We consider that shared epistemic agency depicts the aspects of pro-active, knowledge-driven, collaborative conduct of students creating shared knowledge objects. We claim that this type of agency is also relational in nature, since work on shared knowledge objects brings about relational elements (Edwards, 2007).

The study describes the interrelation between characteristics of students´ knowledge and social network and indications of their shared epistemic agency, and to unveil how these relate to the students´ collaborative object-oriented activities. The participants were twenty four second-year media engineering international students from an university of applied sciences. Groups of students were required to collaboratively design a digital mock-up for the re-use library functionality of an online collaborative learning tool. Technological support for collaboration was provided through an online wiki system. Data were gathered using combined quantitative and qualitative methods. Social network analysis methods were employed to analyze the structure of the knowledge and social network. Qualitative content analysis methods were applied to identify indications of epistemic agency in the students’collaborative object-driven activities.

Preliminary results show, that, although the knowledge network of the participants´ group was not very dense, knowledge exchange took place within and between groups. A number of students were indicated as providers of ideas and object-related advice, and they also showed indications of shared epistemic agency; this by taking responsibility for the mock-up development process and by providing the group with ideas and preliminary solutions. Students indicated as less central in the knowledge network participated actively in later phases of the collaborative process.

Theoretical background

Successful knowledge-driven work in current professional settings requires creating new ideas and solutions; such complex problems often need to be addressed by integrating multiple individual contributions. Collaborative learning tasks in higher education that involve the creation of complex knowledge objects resemble such authentic knowledge work.

This study starts from the premise that learning is a process that involves creating new knowledge through collaborative work on shared knowledge objects (Paavola & Hakkarainen, 2005). In this context, agentic conduct is essential for productive collaborative object development. We consider that shared epistemic agency depicts the aspects of pro-active, knowledge-driven, collaborative conduct of students for creating shared knowledge objects. This type of agency is inherently relational; it emerges and manifests through interactions and collaborative activities. The relational elements are thus intertwined with the collaborative epistemic endeavour aimed at developing the shared object. This claim draws upon Edwards´ (2007) stance that work on a shared objects brings about relational elements, which involves drawing on the resources of others, being an (epistemic) resource for others, and subsequently, using the support of others to pursue the development of the shared object. From our perspective, two (intertwined) types of actions characterizing shared epistemic agency are emergent in object-oriented collaboration. The object-driven actions are exercised directly upon the object, leading to the immediate progress of the object. The relational actions aim to create the social-relational context for performing the object-driven activities.

Aims

This study addresses the relational aspects of epistemic agency in the context of higher education students’ collaborative activities aimed at creating shared knowledge objects. More specifically, the study intends to describe the potential interrelation between characteristics of students´ knowledge and social networks and their shared epistemic agency, and to unveil how these relate to the students´ collaborative object-oriented activities.

Method

Twenty four second-year media engineering international students from an university of applied sciences in Finland participated in this study. We conducted a study in which students were required to collaboratively design a digital mock-up for the re-use library functionality of an online collaborative learning tool. The task was performed in groups of three members and technological support was provided through an online wiki system. A mock-up is a visual representation of the user interface developed to envision the features and functionalities to be developed. Students applied a parallel design approach, which involves participants individually drawing paper mock-ups, discussing quality criteria, selecting the best paper mock-up of each group, and designing a common digital mock-up. Each group presented the individual and the final digital mock-ups.

Combined quantitative and qualitative data-collection and analysis methods were employed. A pre- and post-test questionnaire was used to collect data regarding the knowledge and social networking practices of students. Interviews enriched this perspective, by providing data regarding students’ own perceptions of their network, and involvment in the collaborative task. Diaries were used to gather data about students´ object-related activities outside the class and participant observations for recording students´ discussions and activities during labs. The intermediate and final group products were also collected.

Social network analysis methods, using the UCINET program (Borgatti, Everret and Freeman, 2002), were employed to analyze the structure of the knowledge and social network, using a number of dimensions generated based on QAP-correlations between questionnaire items. Mainly the density of the knowledge network and of the social network, the grouping of the students during object-driven activities and the centrality of some students in the networks were analyzed. Qualitative content analysis methods were applied to identify indications of epistemic agency in the students’object-driven activities. Paths of object-oriented collaboration, which identifies different actions undertaken by studenst for developing the common mock-up, were described.

Results

Social network analyses indicated that the knowledge network of the participants was not very dense, explained especially by the fact that the number of collaboration ties was often reduced to each group’s members. However, some students reached for ideas and advice outside their group, from fellow students or their teacher. The knowledge network was on average denser around students indicated as providers of ideas and object-related advice; also collaboration appeared to take place around these students. Responsibility for the mock-up development process was also often taken by these most central actors in the knowledge network.

Preliminary qualitative analyses revealed that collaborative process evolved unequally, and groups struggled to organize their work in the way that collaborative mock-up creation took place. Coherent collaborative patterns of activity emerged when the best individual paper mock-ups were discussed. In four of the seven groups the ideas from the individual mock-up were merged and students selected the best features from each individual product based on discussion and negotiation. Students indicated by the social network analysis as less central in the knowledge network participated also actively in this phase of the process, showing indications of agency. The assessment of the products showed that the majority of the products met the quality criteria established during a joint class discussion. Further analysis needs to be conducted in order to understand the intertwined relational and epistemic aspects of agency related to the students’ object-oriented collaboration.

From a theoretical perspective this study sheds light on the mechanisms of joint productive work for creating shared epistemic objects and on how relational aspects play a role in this collaborative process. From the perspective of the educational practice this study informs educators about the challenges encountered when attempting to support and elicit object-mediated collaborative learning and students´ active engagement in creating knowledge. Furthermore, the study discusses the findings in relation to pedagogical and individual elements that play a role in the learning process investigated.

References

Borgatti, S.P., Everett, M.G., & Freeman, L.C. (2002). Ucinet for windows: Software for social network analysis. Harvard, MA: Analytic Technologies.

Edwards, A. (2007). Relational Agency in Professional Practice: a CHAT analysis. An International Journal of Human Activity, 1, 1-17.

Paavola, S., & Hakkarainen, K. (2005). The knowledge creation metaphor – An emergent epistemological approach to learning. Science & Education, 14, 535-557.

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Engineers designing multimedia products face various challenges posed by innovative technological solutions and transforming user environments, which should somehow be taken into account in engineering education. One way to contribute to the development of trainees’ know-how required in addressing these challenges is assigning students to design products for real customers in practically oriented courses. This kind of pedagogical setting can be regarded as giving rise to cross-fertilization between knowledge practices of an educational institution represented by students and teachers, and practices of working life represented by clients.

In its widest meaning the term cross-fertilization, borrowed from biology, refers to an interchange between different cultures or ways of thinking, which is mutually productive and beneficial. Over the past decades this phenomenon and its implementation in knowledge practices have been discussed in various contexts.

The proposal summarizes findings from a study exploring the arrangements related to two design courses for engineering students at Metropolia University of Applied Sciences. The study aimed particularly at tracing specific challenges that the course participants are exposed to and the pedagogical practices and technologies that can help the students address these challenges, and thus attain the professional knowledge practices required in their field.

The results indicate that through the cross-fertilization process, students faced various challenges, related both to socio-pragmatic and conceptual-material aspects, typical for authentic design tasks; e.g. defining the user requirements of the products in an unambiguous way, developing the products together with the client or producing multimedia products using existing resources and models. Several student teams found innovative ways of dealing with those challenges. Students reported that the course experience was valuable especially because of this possibility to learn to manage challenges of real work contexts.

Introduction

Engineers designing multi-media products face various challenges posed by innovative technological solutions and transforming user environments. One way to contribute to the development of trainees’ know-how required in addressing these challenges is to engage them in projects implementing cross-fertilization of knowledge practices between educational institutions and working life.

The term cross-fertilization refers to an interchange between different cultures or different ways of thinking that is mutually productive and beneficial (Hartas, 2004; Watts et. al., 1994; Heylighen et. al, 2006) The present study aimed at exploring how cross-fertilization as direct collaboration between students and clients can be implemented in educational settings preparing engineering students for working life and specifying the kinds of challenges students face when exposed to cross-fertilization. Relying on the conceptual distinction of basic types of human activities made by Elkonin (1999); the concepts of relational agency introduced by Edwards (2007) and conceptual agency introduced by Pickering (1995), we differentiated two relatively diverse clusters of challenges related to authentic design assignments. Socio-pragmatic challenges are about how learners act to align their thoughts and actions with those of others in developing the shared object. Conceptual-material challenges relate to the learners’ ways of using culturally evolved practices and material and conceptual artefacts or resources in working on their objects.

Method

Setting and participants

Two Bachelor level courses in Media Technology at a University of Applied Sciences were investigated. Participants of Course 1 were 39 third year Finnish students and a teacher; participants of Course 2 were 25 second year international students, a principal teacher and an alumni student working in the field. The courses aimed to teach collaborative design practices and project-based working methods. Design assignments were given by real customers, i.e., guiding students towards competencies needed in real working life. The courses lasted about 4 months, including face to face tutoring sessions and team work outside school premises. The students chose their project and team, and carried out the project quite independently, receiving guidance from the teachers when needed.

Data collection and analysis

The collected data included interviews of all teachers, two clients and three student teams; students’ written self-reflections after the course; contents of the database in the web-based system; and the researchers’ observations on activities in some seminar sessions and team meetings.

Qualitative content analysis was conducted on all textual data. Sections concerning cross-fertilization were scored into six categories. The first three categories included verbalisations describing a) socio-pragmatic challenges, b) solutions that the students created in addressing these challenges and c) the forms of guidance they received in that. The other three categories covered d) verbalisations describing conceptual-material challenges, e) the ways of addressing them, and f) related guidance received. Other data were used as complementary information to build an overview of the cross-fertilization mechanisms in the courses.

Results

Socio-pragmatic challenges related to students’ direct collaboration with the clients. The students were supposed to find their client on their own, define the user requirements of the products, and regularly negotiate, test and develop the products together with the client. The definition of user requirements was often found to be a particularly challenging task because not all clients could clearly explicate their needs.

Student teams developed various solutions for overcoming these socio-pragmatic challenges, e.g. launching a survey presenting various possible technical features of the product being designed and asking the client to select from these features the most desired ones, or giving the client a link to website being designed for comments. Not all teams met regularly with their clients; e-mailing and phone calls were mostly used for communication. Networked tools allowing the sharing of the iterations of the products with the clients were regarded by the students as the desired next step in the development of available technology in the course.

In some cases the teacher found the client for a student team and participated in joint meetings. In Course 2, the assisting teacher told the students about his experiences in real working projects, particularly about the negative consequences to which the lack of clearly stated goals defined with clients may lead.

The conceptual-material challenges of the course related to systematic documentation of design solutions and to the creation of material structure and interfaces for multimedia products (interactive websites, CD-ROMs with video data). In some cases student teams pro-actively asked the assisting teacher to give them a lecture on the domain-specific issues that they did not know of or consulted an expert outside the group. In creating products, the students re-used such authentic resources as code strings available in the Internet and video material provided by the clients. Teachers provided students with professional project work models and document templates to be used for documentation as in real projects.

Educational implications

The results of the study indicate that the cross-fertilization practices of designing for real clients served its purpose to introduce students to social-pragmatic and conceptual-material challenges of design work. Concrete suggestions for improving the course to better support cross-fertilization are, e.g., improvements in the technical infrastructure to enhance virtual co-design with clients, and promotion of systematic reflection of best practices and lessons learnt.

Elkonin, D.B. (1999). Toward the Problem of Stages in the Mental Development of Children. Journal of Russian and East European Psychology, 37(6), 11–30.

Edwards, A. (2007). Relational Agency in Professional Practice: A CHAT Analysis. ACTIO: An International Journal of Human Activity Theory, 1, 1-17.

Pickering, A. (1995). The mangle of practice. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Hartas, D. (2004). Teacher and speech-language therapist collaboration: being equal and achieving a common goal. Child Language and Teaching Therapy, 20, 33-54.

Heylighen, A., Lindekens, J., Martin; W. M., & Neuckermans, H. (2006). Mind the gap: Towards knowledge exchange between practice and academia. In: M. Belderbos & J. Verbeke (Eds.), The Unthinkable Doctorate (pp. 409-419), Brussels: St.Lucas Architectuur, Press Point.

Watts, A.G., Guichard, J., Plant, P., & Roderiguez, L. (1994). Educational and vocational guidance in the European community. Luxembourg: Office for official publication of the European communities.

Knowledge creation based on the trialogical perspective on learning can be seen as collaborative development of shared objects of activity (Paavola & Hakkarainen, 2005). In design projects students have to work on a self-defined project in which a real product is to be developed. Knowledge creation in this context means to develop a product based on a local theory about the design problem as well as a corresponding design hypothesis and to evaluate the solution of the problem by using the product in a real world context. The results of this evaluation compared to the proposed theory and hypothesis might provide new and enhanced perspectives about the design problem and might lead to new theories and hypothesis about the problem. The study reported in this paper is focused on the steps students carried out in their project work and the impact of tools throughout this process. The outcomes feed into at pedagogical model for design projects which aims at fostering knowledge creation. In a case study we analyze the design process of two project groups to identify relevant steps like problematizing, conceptualizing solutions and evaluating. Furthermore we investigate the role of shared objects and artefacts as relevant factors in design processes and knowledge creation. The results are discussed regarding their impact on design-based learning and the relevance of trialogical learning in higher education.

Background and aims of the study

The trialogical learning approach as proposed by Paavola and Hakkarainen (2005) emphasizes the collaborative and sustained advancement of shared artefacts as an important characteristic of knowledge creation process. This approach, which goes beyond the knowledge acquisition and participation metaphor of learning, conceptualizes learning as the progressive development of ideas, practices, and knowledge artefacts through mediated activities (Paavola, Lipponen, Hakkarainen, 2004). Knowledge creation thereby is equally relevant to scientific inquiry as well as to design. From a design perspective knowledge creation is not limited to the tangible outcomes produced but is also aimed to deepen the understanding of the problem and solution space at stake and the means viable to address respective needs.

To our understanding the artefact (designed objects: products or services) constitutes a design hypothesis of the designers, which is tested when the designed object is put into use. Given the wicked nature of design problems, putting the designed solution into use is most often the only way to check the viability of the proposed solution and to problematize the conceptualization of the problem space. In this test, which compares the envisioned and observed effects, new insight and knowledge might be produced.

The design process entails at least the following elements: 1) creating a local theory of the design problem, 2) deriving a design hypothesis (the designed product or services) that might overcome the problem in line with the local theory, and 3) evaluating the viability of the proposed solution. The kind of knowledge to be created in this process is aimed to provide answers to the question on what works for whom, how, and under which conditions.

Teaching design and design thinking is a complex and demanding challenge. Mostly project-based learning is used as a pedagogical model to teach design thinking (Dym, Agogino, Eris, Rey & Leifer, 2005). Students of the study program „Communication, Knowledge and Media” at the University of Applied Sciences Upper Austria start their first study year with a self-defined project. The overall pedagogical aim is to foster design thinking, which is related to innovative, creative thinking and knowledge creation.

Research design

At the beginning of the course students of the first year study program „Communication, Knowledge and Media” at the University of Applied Sciences Upper Austria were grouped into six project teams. They work for two semesters on their self-defined project. The idea behind this scenario is that students become engaged in real-life design activities right from the beginning of the study program getting acquainted with the wicked nature of complex design problems.

During the project Moodle as the main learning environment has been available to the students. The groups are requested to document their project process and experiences in the discussion board according to five discussion threads (collection of ideas and reflection, organisation and coordination, communication with the teacher, resources and research, project process and results). For the discussion board a guideline and netiquette was given to the students.

Research questions

What are the main project steps carried out by the teams? Which steps can be identified that reflect the knowledge creation process as proposed in our model?

Which tools are used for the design process and for what purpose?

What is the role of shared objects and artefacts in collaborative design based project work?

Method

We used a „multiple-case design“(Yin, 2003), i.e. comparing two project groups. Different methods of data collection (data triangulation) were applied. To identify the role of shared objects, artefacts and knowledge creation processes the discussion board postings of two project groups were analyzed by using content analysis. To find out in which way students handle their projects and if they use some critical main steps like analyzing the problem we used predefined categories. These categories reflect design processes like problematizing, envisioning possible solution, realizing the solution etc. and were derived from a review of existing process models for design and problem solving.

Additionally we applied questionnaires to find out which tools the teams used and for which purpose. These were administered twice, during the project and at the end of the project.

Preliminary Results

At the moment only the results of one project group are available and we are still analyzing the data. The design process of two groups will be presented regarding the collaborative knowledge creation process and the role of shared objects and artefacts.

Preliminary results regarding the tool usage show that students used various tools very context dependent. Some tools like weblogs and spreadsheets are of importance just in particular groups, while they are rarely or never used in other groups. Furthermore some tools are used very strictly according to specific needs and activities e.g. chat for intra-group communication whereas other tools are used in a broader scope e.g. text processing was mainly used for prewriting mails or forum entries, for documentation purposes, but also for writing protocols and collecting ideas.

Conclusion - theoretical and educational significance

The results will be discussed in relation to a proposed pedagogical model for fostering knowledge creation in design-based projects and the role of computer supported technologies for design processes.

References

Dym, C.L., Agogino, A.M., Eris, O., Frey, D.D., Leifer, L.J. (2005).
Engineering Design Thinking, Teaching, and Learning. Journal of Engineering Education, 94(1), 103-120.

Paavola, S., Lipponen, L. & Hakkarainen, K. (2004). Models of Innovative Knowledge Communities and Three Metaphors of Learning. Review of Educational Research, 74(4), pp. 557-576

Paavola, S. & Hakkarainen, K. (2005). The Knowlegde Creation Metaphor – An Emergent Epistemological Approach to Learning. Science Education, 14, pp 535-557

Yin, R.K. (2003). Case Study Research. Design and Methods (3^rd Edition). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Introducing students to learning contexts that focus on collaborative creation of knowledge creates tensions with the traditional culture of learning that is characterized by acquisition of knowledge through transmission. Consequently, both teachers as well as their students face the challenge to learn to go beyond their individual efforts and to collaborate within communities for the advancement of their knowledge. Although these tensions can be viewed as important motives behind potential change that could open up the students’ zone of development, they can also lead to disruptions in collaboration or even to student dropout. Inappropriate ways of dealing with tensions will prevent or even obliterate collaborative learning that should take place between teachers and their students. Overcoming these tensions requires the construction of relations that would ultimately lead to ways of working which are shared between partners. But what happens when students and their teacher fail to bridge this gap? Purpose of this paper is to report on a study that draws upon socio-cultural approaches in interpreting a breakdown in collaboration that occurred between a teacher and his students. The concept of intersubjectivity will be employed as tool to explicate the relationship between the situational aspects of the tensions that occurred on the one hand and the cultural-institutional and historical contexts in which these tensions occurred on the other. Based on Matusov (2001), the paper presents data from the course to elaborate on three aspects of intersubjectivity which help to explain the failing collaboration: 1) proactive and continuous creation of common ground, 2) sharing contradictions in considerate ways and 3) supporting and recognizing agency. Based on the results, implications for designing teaching for knowledge creation are provided.

Introduction

A central premise of the sociocultural approach to learning views historically accumulating structural tensions or contradictions as significant sources for change and development. For instance, in his adaptation of cultural-historical activity theory, Engeström (1987) advocates that contradictions serve as a springboard for changing practices of working communities. Rather than seeing contradictions as adverse consequences, Engeström conceptualizes them as the potential driving force for innovation and improvement of practices. Learning is accomplished when tensions lead to reconceptualization of the object and motive of a particular activity to embrace a more heterogeneous horizon of possibilities than in the previous activity. In addition, studies of Barab et al. (2004) advocate the investigation of how contradictions are approached and resolved as key to understanding the process of learning and change.

Although the potential of contradictions to result in learning, this does not necessarily occur. In fact, contradictions can actually disable it, depending on the extent to which they are acknowledged and resolved by the partners.

In this paper we report on a case study wherein a breakdown in collaboration between a teacher and his students is explained employing the concept of intersubjectivity (cf. Matusov, 2001). More specifically, the finding that contradictions between partners were not resolved and eventually led to the students dropping out of the course are related to the lack of: 1) proactive and continuous creation of common ground, 2) sharing contradictions in considerate ways and 3) supporting and recognizing agency.

Method

The context of this case involves a 10-week second-year bachelor level course on web-based learning environments. Previous iterations of this course centred on the acquisition of declarative knowledge by a system of lectures, textbooks, and testing. To challenge students more towards meaningful learning, the teacher redesigned the course according to principles of knowledge creation (Paavola & Hakkarainen, 2005). In this approach to learning, the focus is on the creation of new knowledge through the construction of shared artefacts.

The student group that is the focus of this study left the course after 6 weeks following an episode in which the teacher expressed his annoyance with the group not turning their paper in time. Data collected involved observations of meetings between the teacher and the student group and interviews with the teacher and the students.

Results and Implications

Proactive and continuous creation of common ground

Collaboration between people involves negotiation between multiple perspectives, interests, practices and traditions. This characteristic of group work provides a platform for tensions to arise that are related to indistinct roles, diverging agendas, different practices or routines and mismatched timelines. Productive collaboration results from partners investing effort in developing a common ground and having a shared object of activity. Nevertheless, to serve as springboards for growth, it is necessary that partners recognize the need for explicating underlying issues and maintain in creating a shared focus.

Invisible or unrecognized contradictions can be potentially even more detrimental to the process of grounding. If an invisible contradiction is taken for granted, members of a group may even not recognize it as a problem and includes assumptions about how things are done and how relationships are managed. As an illustration, in the following excerpts it seemed that both the teacher and his students had different expectations of each other’s roles but that this remained at the tacit level:

Teacher (interview): In supervising the students it is important that they indicate what they understand and do not understand and what they think of something. Otherwise I can do nothing.

Students (interview): It was vague what the teacher expected of us, the steps we have to go through when doing research were unclear and we received no guidelines.

Sharing contradictions in considerate ways

A collaborative working relation requires the creation of a space wherein partners can disagree in respectful ways, support each other when contradictions occur and suggest alternatives. Contradictions among partners have the potential to coordinate their joint activities, but it is essential that partners share their concerns and value each other’s emerging concerns as valid.

As shown in the excerpts below, both partners were not showing their concern for sharing their issues with each other.

Teacher (transcript from recording meeting with students): I did not receive your research proposal, now I do not know what you want or what you are doing maybe we should leave it this way!

Students (interview): We thought we were ought to revise everything, we may have tried something but time was short and the teacher was rather late with his comments.

Fostering agency

In knowledge creation contexts, it appears that the main challenge of educating for agency is how to engage the learner in the agency process and not taking over the processes.

Often this effort creates a tension with the educational backgrounds of both students and their teacher who were raised in an educational philosophy of transmission of knowledge. As shown in the excerpt below the teacher treats his students more as resisting partners in his manipulation, instead of as partners in fostering each other’s agency.

Teacher (interview): I think the students had processed the literature superficially, so maybe I should have given more attention to the theoretical framing of their research question

Discussion

The present study problematized the idea of internal contradictions as the driving force of change development in collaboration. Systemic tensions in collaboration arising from within a knowledge creation context of may lead to disruptive behaviour that can be related to problems arising in the above mentioned interrelated aspects of partners’ intersubjectivity.

Barab, S., Schatz, S. & Scheckler. R. (2004). Using activity theory to conceptualize online

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Engeström, Y. (1987). Learning by expanding: An activity-theoretical approach to developmental research. Helsinki: Orienta-Konsultit.

Matusov, E. (2001). Intersubjectivity as a way of informing teaching design for a community of learners classroom. Teaching and Teacher Education 17, 383-402.

Paavola, S., & Hakkarainen, K. (2005). The knowledge creation metaphor – An emergent epistemological approach to learning. Science & Education, 14, 535-557.